Principles for Instructional Videos

In this blog, I compare three articles on best practices/principles for designing instructional videos and provide a list of matching principles that may help you design your instructional videos. These can be applied with the WCAG accessibility guidelines and general good design principles.

There are dozens of research articles about the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML) and several about the Cognitive Affective Theory of Learning with Media (CATLM). However, a couple of the issues with many of these studies in multimedia design is that they *may* be specific to a single format. For example, can we say that principles for multimedia design used in a classroom setting should also apply to an asynchronous online course filmed in a studio? In addition, the studies researched different aspects such as student preferences as opposed to memory retention as opposed to application of knowledge.

However, that being said, below is a comparison of 3 articles specifically about principles for instructional videos. Mayer is well known for his development of 12 principles for multimedia design (for more on this, see this page). Less known is his list of 14 principles for instructional videos (Mayer, 2021) based on his research into cognitive learning. Fyfield et. al. (2022) reviewed over 100 articles specifically researching instructional video to develop a list of 31 instructional video that had been proposed as good practice. Ou et. al. (2019) conducted research by developing a series of videos for a course and then checking student perceptions. From this, they developed a list of 7 principles (Note that I broke down their 5^th principle which is based on Merrill’s principles of instruction). [Note that these are sequenced by the Fyfield article because it was the first I read]

Comparing apples and oranges

One of the issues in comparing the lists is that each article uses different definitions or terms for possibly comparable items. For example, Fyfield defined the following:

• 11. “Presenter’s face  Avoid including the presenter’s face when alternative visuals are displayed.”

While Mayer has two principles pertaining to visual the presenter:

• 3 “Signaling  Highlight key material  Lecturer points to elements in slide as she mentions them.”
• 12 “Image  Do not display static image of the instructor’s face  Video does not have a window with a photo of the instructor’s face.”

And Ou et al listed:

• 6 “Personalization principle three instructional approaches to promote learning: using conversational rather than formal style, using effective on-screen coaches, and making the author (instructor) visible.”

In these cases, I used grey shading to indicate a close match.

In other cases, an article listed items not covered by the other two authors (note, however, that all of Mayer’s principles were duplicated by another author). For example, the article by Fyfield, et. al. listed:

• 16 “Speech rate (fast superior)”, but neither other article had a similar item.

Compiled list

(See where they match here)

Below is a compiled list of all suggested principles for instructional videos using the following codes:

• (All) – mentioned in the three articles
• (A&B) – mentioned in the Fyfield et al. and Mayer articles
• (A&C) – mentioned in the Fyfield et al. and Ou et. al. articles
• (A) mentioned in the Fyfield et al. article only
• (C) mentioned in the Ou et al. article

Multimedia (All)

• Use words and pictures rather than words alone.(Fyfield et al., 2022)
• Present words and graphics rather than words alone (Mayer, 2021)
• Three main reasons for doing this. (1) People learn better when content is presented with both words and graphics rather than words alone, and words should be presented as audio narration rather than onscreen text  (2) Using prepared visuals gives more time for iteration and refinement of visuals. (3)Instructors may focus all their cognitive resources on narrating the course content to students rather than attending live to the visual layout of the screen, the selection of pen colors for certain types of content, or the legibility of handwriting.(Ou et al., 2019)

Personalisation (All)

• Narrations should use first/second person conversational speech. (Fyfield et al., 2022)
• Use conversational language (Mayer, 2021)
• Three instructional approaches to promote learning: using conversational rather than formal style, using effective on-Screen coaches, and making the author (instructor) visible (Ou et al., 2019)

Presenter (All)

• Avoid including the presenter’s face when alternative visuals are displayed.(Fyfield et al., 2022)
• Do not display static image of the instructor’s face (Mayer, 2021)
• Three instructional approaches to promote learning: using conversational rather than formal style, using effective on-Screen coaches, and making the author (instructor) visible (Ou et al., 2019)

Integrated learning Activities (All)

• Integrate practice activities, either during pauses in the presentation or following the video. (Fyfield et al., 2022)
• Insert generative learning activities (Mayer, 2021)
• Using active learning activities in teaching leads to better student attitudes and better learning outcomes when compared to teaching with traditional lecture approaches (Ou et al., 2019)

Coherence   (A&B)

• Only instructional material directly related to the key learning goal should be included. (Fyfield et al., 2022)
• Avoid extraneous material in slides and script (Mayer, 2021)

Signalling (A&B)

• Important information should be highlighted to learners. (Fyfield et al., 2022)
• Highlight key material (Mayer, 2021)

Redundancy  (A&B)

• Written text should not be added when narration is present. (Fyfield et al., 2022)
• Do not add captions that repeat the narration (Mayer, 2021)

Spatial contiguity  (A&B)

• Related elements should be presented in close physical proximity on the screen (also called split attention). (Fyfield et al., 2022)
• Place printed text next to corresponding part of graphic (Mayer, 2021)

Temporal Contiguity (A&B)

• Related elements (e.g., narration and visuals) should be presented at the same time. (Fyfield et al., 2022)
• Present visual material at same time as corresponding narration (Mayer, 2021)

Segmenting  (A&B)

• Longer videos should be broken into meaningful chunks.(Fyfield et al., 2022)
• Break a complex lesson into progressive parts under the control of the learner (Mayer, 2021)

Pre-training  (A&B)

• Learners should be introduced to key names and characteristics before the lesson.(Fyfield et al., 2022)
• Provide pre-training in the names and characteristics of key concept (Mayer, 2021)

Voice  (A&B)

• Narrations should be recorded in a human voice rather than synthesised, machine voice. (Fyfield et al., 2022)
• Use appealing human voice (Mayer, 2021)

Modality (A&B)

• Use spoken narration rather than written text.  (Fyfield et al., 2022)
• Present words as spoken text (Mayer, 2021)

Worked example  (A&C)

• Include completed guidance or examples when solving problems or learning skills. (Fyfield et al., 2022)
• Learning occurs when learners actively construct their knowledge by interpreting their experiences… instruction should consist of experiences that facilitate knowledge construction.(Ou et al., 2019)

Embodiment (A&B)

• Videos should include human movement or gestures, such as showing hands when assembling. (Fyfield et al., 2022)
• Display gesturing instructor (Mayer, 2021)

Guided discovery (A&C)

• Interface should provide hints and feedback as learner solves problems. (Fyfield et al., 2022)
• Practice without feedback does not help students learn(Ou et al., 2019)

Background music  (A)

• Avoid including distracting background music.(Fyfield et al., 2022)

Audio quality  (A)

• Audio should be clear, with no distracting hissing or interference. (Fyfield et al., 2022)

Video length Reduction (A)

• Shorter videos are more effective than long ones. (Fyfield et al., 2022)

Perspective (1st superior) (A)

• Videos shot from the learner’s perspective are more effective than third-person perspective.(Fyfield et al., 2022)

Sound effects  (A)

• Avoid including sound effects. (Fyfield et al., 2022)

Speech rate (fast superior) (A)

• Speech rate should be faster than conversational speaking rate. (Fyfield et al., 2022)

Transience  (A)

• Video loses advantages over static media when too much information is presented too quickly. (Fyfield et al., 2022)

Learner control  (A)

• Students should be given control over playback. (Fyfield et al., 2022)

Reviews  (A)

• Videos should end with a summary of the content. (Fyfield et al., 2022)

Self-explanation  (A)

• Videos should prompt students to explain the learning goal to themselves. (Fyfield et al., 2022)

Drawing  (A)

• Leaners should be encouraged to draw the learning goals. (Fyfield et al., 2022)

Dialogue  (A)

• Videos that show dialogue between an instructor and learner outperform straight declarative videos. (Fyfield et al., 2022)

Emotional design  (A)

• Warm, high-saturation colours and anthropomorphisms should be used in videos. (Fyfield et al., 2022)

Misconceptions  (A)

• Conceptual videos should dispel common misconceptions at the start.(Fyfield et al., 2022)

Interactivity  (A)

• Videos that include learner controllable content outperform standard playable video. (Fyfield et al., 2022)

Learning through reflection (C)

• Reflection is related to learning in that it encourages metacognition and enables learning from representing learning (Ou et al., 2019)

Activation of prior experience (C)

• Preview of the lesson, Learning through reflection(Ou et al., 2019)

Demonstration of skills (C)

• Presentation and discussion of lesson topics, Learning by example(Ou et al., 2019)

Application of skills (C)

• Exercises, Exercise solutions, & Assignments(Ou et al., 2019)

Integration into real-world activities (C)

• Wrap-up, the cognitive connection, & reflection(Ou et al., 2019)

The following are the complete lists from each article:

Where they match

(See the full lists for each article with descriptions for each item)

All three articles agree on the following (grey shading to indicate a close match):

Two articles agree on the following (grey shading to indicate a close match):

Items identified in only one article:

7 Background music  (Fyfield et al., 2022)

8 Audio quality  (Fyfield et al., 2022)

9 Video length Reduction (Fyfield et al., 2022)

10 Perspective (1st superior) (Fyfield et al., 2022)

12 Sound effects  (Fyfield et al., 2022)

16 Speech rate (fast superior) (Fyfield et al., 2022)

17 Transience  (Fyfield et al., 2022)

19 Learner control  (Fyfield et al., 2022)

20 Reviews  (Fyfield et al., 2022)

25 Self-explanation  (Fyfield et al., 2022)

26 Drawing  (Fyfield et al., 2022)

27 Dialogue  (Fyfield et al., 2022)

28 Emotional design  (Fyfield et al., 2022)

29 Misconceptions  (Fyfield et al., 2022)

31 Interactivity  (Fyfield et al., 2022)

4 Learning through reflection (Ou et al., 2019)

5a Activation of prior experience (Ou et al., 2019)

5b Demonstration of skills (Ou et al., 2019)

5c Application of skills (Ou et al., 2019)

5d Integration of these skills into real-world activities (Ou et al., 2019)

Individual lists

Evidence-Based Principles for the Design of Instructional Videos (Mayer, 2021)

Evidence-Based Principles for the Design of Instructional Videos (Mayer, 2021)
	Principle	Description	Example
1	Multimedia	Present words and graphics rather than words alone	Video contains both narration and graphics
Reducing Extraneous Processing
2	Coherence	Avoid extraneous material in slides and script	Slides do not contain huge logos or colorful backgrounds
3	Signaling	Highlight key material	Lecturer points to elements in slide as she mentions them
4	Redundancy	Do not add captions that repeat the narration	Video does not contain subtitles (unless words are technical or in the learner’s second language)
5	Spatial contiguity	Place printed text next to corresponding part of graphic	Slides contain graphics with words placed next to corresponding parts
6	Temporal contiguity	Present visual material at same time as corresponding narration	The lecturer’s narration is in sync with material on the slide
Manage Essential Processing
7	Segmenting	Break a complex lesson into progressive parts under the control of the learner	Allow the learner to press a button to see the next segment of a slide and hear the accompanying narration
8	Pre-training	Provide pre-training in the names and characteristics of key concept	Video contains an introduction involving the names and characteristics of key concepts
9	Modality	Present words as spoken text	Video includes instructor’s voice
Foster Generative Processing
10	Personalization	Use conversational language	Lecturer speaks in first and second person using “I”, “we”, “you”, “us”, and/or “let’s.”
11	Voice	Use appealing human voice	Lecturer speaks with friendly human voice that displays positive emotion
12	Image	Do not display static image of the instructor’s face	Video does not have a window with a photo of the instructor’s face
13	Embodiment	Display gesturing instructor	Lecturer writes and draws on board as she lectures. Lecturer maintains eye contact as she lectures. Lecturer displays dynamic gestures as she lectures. Demonstration is filmed from first-person perspective
14	Generative activity	Insert generative learning activities	At pauses in the video the learner is asked to type in a brief explanation of the foregoing segment

Improving instructional video design: A systematic review (Fyfield et al., 2022)

Improving instructional video design: A systematic review (Fyfield et al., 2022)
	Principle	Description of design technique
Extraneous processing principles
1	Coherence	Only instructional material directly related to the key learning goal should be included.
2	Signalling	Important information should be highlighted to learners
3	Redundancy	Written text should not be added when narration is present.
4	Spatial contiguity	Related elements should be presented in close physical proximity on the screen (also called split attention).
5	Temporal Contiguity	Related elements (e.g., narration and visuals) should be presented at the same time.
6	Segmenting	Longer videos should be broken into meaningful chunks.
7	Background music	Avoid including distracting background music.
8	Audio quality	Audio should be clear, with no distracting hissing or interference
9	Video length Reduction	Shorter videos are more effective than long ones.
10	Perspective (1st superior)	Videos shot from the learner’s perspective are more effective than third-person perspective.
11	Presenter’s face	Avoid including the presenter’s face when alternative visuals are displayed.
12	Sound effects	Avoid including sound effects.
Essential processing principles
13	Pre-training	Learners should be introduced to key names and characteristics before the lesson.
14	Modality	Use spoken narration rather than written text.
15	Multimedia	Use words and pictures rather than words alone.
16	Speech rate (fast superior)	Speech rate should be faster than conversational speaking rate.
17	Transience	Video loses advantages over static media when too much information is presented too quickly.
18	Worked example	Include completed guidance or examples when solving problems or learning skills.
19	Learner control	Students should be given control over playback.
20	Reviews	Videos should end with a summary of the content.
Generative processing principles
21	Personalisation	Narrations should use first/second person conversational speech.
22	Voice principle	Narrations should be recorded in a human voice rather than synthesised, machine voice.
23	Embodiment Principle	Videos should include human movement or gestures, such as showing hands when assembling.
24	Guided discovery	Interface should provide hints and feedback as learner solves problems.
25	Self-explanation	Videos should prompt students to explain the learning goal to themselves.
26	Drawing	Leaners should be encouraged to draw the learning goals.
27	Dialogue	Videos that show dialogue between an instructor and learner outperform straight declarative videos.
28	Emotional design	Warm, high-saturation colours and anthropomorphisms should be used in videos.
29	Misconceptions	Conceptual videos should dispel common misconceptions at the start.
30	Integrated learning Activities	Integrate practice activities, either during pauses in the presentation or following the video.
31	Interactivity	Videos that include learner controllable content outperform standard playable video.

Designing and Developing Videos for Online Learning (Ou et al., 2019)

Designing and Developing Videos for Online Learning (Ou et al., 2019)
	Principle	Design advice
Methods
1	Learning by example	Learning occurs when learners actively construct their knowledge by interpreting their experiences… instruction should consist of experiences that facilitate knowledge construction.
2	Learning by doing	using active learning activities in teaching leads to better student attitudes and better learning outcomes when compared to teaching with traditional lecture approaches
3	Adaptive feedback	practice without feedback does not help students learn
4	Learning through reflection	Reflection is related to learning in that it encourages metacognition and enables learning from representing learning
Sequence
5a	Activation of prior experience	Preview of the lesson, Learning through reflection
5b	Demonstration of skills	Presentation and discussion of lesson topics, Learning by example
5c	Application of skills	Exercises, Exercise solutions, & Assignments
5d	Integration of these skills into real-world activities	Wrap-up, the cognitive connection, & reflection
Presentation
6	Personalization principle	three instructional approaches to promote learning: using conversational rather than formal style, using effective on-screen coaches, and making the author (instructor) visible
7	Multimedia principle	three main reasons for doing this. (1) People learn better when content is presented with both words and graphics rather than words alone, and words should be presented as audio narration rather than onscreen text  (2) Using prepared visuals gives more time for iteration and refinement of visuals. (3)Instructors may focus all their cognitive resources on narrating the course content to students rather than attending live to the visual layout of the screen, the selection of pen colors for certain types of content, or the legibility of handwriting.

References

Fyfield, M., Henderson, M., & Phillips, M. (2022). Improving instructional video design: A systematic review. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 38(3), Article 3. https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.7296

Mayer, R. E. (2021). Evidence-Based Principles for How to Design Effective Instructional Videos. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 10(2), 229–240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jarmac.2021.03.007

Ou, C., Joyner, D. A., & Goel, A. K. (2019). Designing and Developing Videos for Online Learning: A Seven-Principle Model. Online Learning, 23(2). https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v23i2.1449